Biological fermentation is an ancient and fascinating phenomenon in life, through which microorganisms can utilize organic matter in anaerobic or low oxygen environments, converting it into various useful products, thereby releasing energy. This process not only exists widely in nature but also has profound impacts across various domains of human civilization.
The history of biological fermentation dates back thousands of years, as early humans discovered the miraculous effects of fermentation and applied it in food processing, pharmaceutical preparation, and other crafts. For example, ancient humans utilized fermentation to produce foods such as alcoholic beverages, bread, and yogurt, as well as industrial products like brewing yeast. With advancements in scientific technology and deeper understanding of microbiology, our comprehension and application of biological fermentation continue to deepen and expand.
Today, biological fermentation has become an integral part of modern biotechnology. It plays critical roles in fields such as medicine, food, energy, and the environment. For instance, lactic acid fermentation is widely used in the production of dairy products like yogurt and cheese, while alcohol fermentation forms the basis of brewing and biofuel production. Additionally, acetic acid fermentation is essential for manufacturing vinegar and other products. Moreover, biological fermentation is applied in the production of antibiotics, vitamins, enzymes, and other biopharmaceuticals, as well as in wastewater treatment, soil improvement, and energy production.
Definition and Basic Principles of Biological Fermentation
Biological fermentation is a biochemical process initiated by microorganisms in anaerobic or low oxygen environments, where the fundamental principle lies in utilizing the metabolic capacity of microorganisms to convert organic substrates into useful products while generating energy. In this process, microorganisms typically metabolize carbon sources from substrates, producing various organic compounds such as acids, alcohols, and gases.
The definition of biological fermentation comprises two key elements: microorganisms, usually bacteria, yeasts, or fungi, and substrates, the organic substances utilized by microorganisms during fermentation, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Under anaerobic or low oxygen conditions, microorganisms metabolize substrates, generate energy, and produce fermentation products.
The basic principles of biological fermentation involve various biochemical reactions and metabolic pathways. Among these, the metabolism of sugar substrates is the most common. In typical sugar fermentation processes, sugar breakdown, such as glycolysis or other metabolic pathways, occurs initially, resulting in a series of intermediate products and ultimately forming end products. These intermediate products are typically organic acids, alcohols, or gases. During fermentation, energy is also produced, usually stored in the form of ATP, which is utilized for microbial cell growth and metabolic activities.
In addition to sugar substrates, biological fermentation can also metabolize organic substances such as proteins and fats. In these cases, microorganisms convert substrates into organic acids, alcohols, or other products through protein degradation or fatty acid metabolism pathways.
Types of Biological Fermentation
There are various types of biological fermentation based on the end product:
Lactic Acid Fermentation: Lactic acid is generated from pyruvate produced during glycolysis, with the regeneration of NAD+. This process is catalyzed by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase. For instance, lactobacillus bacteria utilize this fermentation pathway to produce curd from milk. During strenuous exercise when oxygen is limited, muscles produce lactic acid as a source of energy, leading to fatigue.
Alcohol Fermentation: This process is employed in the industrial production of beverages like wine and beer, as well as biofuels. It yields alcohol and CO2 as the final products. Pyruvic acid decomposes into acetaldehyde, releasing CO2. Subsequently, ethanol is formed from acetaldehyde, accompanied by the formation of NAD+ from NADH, which is utilized in glycolysis. Yeast and certain bacteria carry out alcohol fermentation, catalyzed by enzymes like pyruvic acid decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase.
Acetic Acid Fermentation: Vinegar is produced through this two-step process. Initially, ethyl alcohol is formed anaerobically from sugar using yeast. In the subsequent step, ethyl alcohol is oxidized to acetic acid by acetobacter bacteria. This oxidation process requires oxygen and is aerobic in nature.
Butyric Acid Fermentation: Characteristic of obligate anaerobic bacteria such as clostridium, this fermentation type occurs in various processes including retting of jute fiber, production of rancid butter, and leather tanning. Butyric acid, an end product, is also produced in the human colon during dietary fiber fermentation, serving as an energy source for colorectal epithelium. This process yields relatively more energy, generating 3 ATP molecules. It involves the oxidation of sugar to pyruvate via glycolysis, followed by further oxidation to acetyl-CoA and ultimately, the production of butyric acid.
By understanding the principles and characteristics of each fermentation type, we can better utilize microbial resources, develop a wider range of fermentation products, and promote the development and application of biotechnology.
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